THE CHALCOLITHIC AND BRONZE

The origin of ancient agricultural crops in the territory of Central Asia dates back to 3-2 millennia BC. In the second half of the 3rd — first half of the 2nd Millennium BC — in the upper reaches of the Amu Darya there were already settlements that participated in the development and trade of Badakhshan lapis lazuli and had links with the Harappan civilization in India. In the 2nd Millennium BC — through the territory of Central Asia and adjacent steppes migration to the South (India), South-East (mussel and Persia), East (East Turkestan — tokhara) Indo-Iranian (Aryan) tribes took place.

A group of East Iranian tribes settled in the oases of Central Asia. In the ancient settlement of farmers near lake Zamanbaba in the basin of the river Zarafshan found the bones of domestic animals, wheat and barley, stone grain grinders and silicon inserts for sickles. Not far from Penjikent, near the village of Sarazm, a settlement of farmers of the Aeneolithic and bronze age with an area of more than 90 hectares was found. Ancient agricultural settlements were found in the valley of Surkhandarya — settlements of Sapallitepa and Dzharkutan.

Archaeological monuments of the bronze age in the territory of Khorezm were called tazabagyab Agricultural culture. Settlements of farmers Kokcha, Kavat-3 and others were founded in the middle of the 2nd Millennium. Traces of ancient canals were found here. At the beginning of the 1st Millennium BC in Khorezm formed Amirabad Culture with advanced technology of artificial irrigation. Gradually to a settled way of life and occupation by agriculture passes also the population of the Fergana valley. Chust agricultural culture in the Fergana valley dates back to the end of 2 — the beginning of 1 Millennium BC. The Foundation of such cities as Samarkand, Merv, Er-Kurgan, Ahsiket, Khiva dates back to the beginning of the first Millennium. This is the time of birth of Zoroastrian «Avesta» and heroic epic.

ANCIENT BACTRIAN KINGDOM

The oldest state Association of Central Asia is the ancient Bactrian Kingdom (written sources called it Bandy in «Avesta», Bactris in Behistun inscriptions, Bactrian ancient authors) who had connections with Assyria, New Babylon, the Medes, the Indian principalities. According to ancient historiography, during the hegemony of Assyria, in the 9th-7th centuries BC there was an «Assyrian campaign» in Bactria to establish control over lazurite. According to Ctesius of knid, who lived at the court of Artaxerxes II (404-358), already in the 8th century BC. there was a large Bactrian Kingdom, which was attacked by Assyrian troops led by king NIN — the husband of the legendary Semiramis and even became part of Assyria. One of the documents States that the king Ashurbanipal called for the assistance of troops from Bactria and Sogdiana. About the siege of Bactria by the Assyrian king, according to Xenophon. For Casio, during the war of the Medes and Assyria, the Bactrians first acted as allies of the Assyrians, and then moved to the side of the Medes.

In 7-6 centuries BC the ancient Bactrian Kingdom covered the territory of Surkhan, Kashkadarya and Zarafshan valleys, included Margiana and Sogd. Products Bactrian masters of gold, stone and bronze gained fame in China, Persia, Europe. The largest cities were located on the site of Kyzyltepa, Er-Kurgan, Uzunkyr and Afrasiab. The traveler of that time would have seen the silhouette of the Bactrian city from afar — a powerful citadel, towering over the raw dwellings, handicraft workshops and outbuildings. Quintus Curtius Rufus writes: «the Nature of Bactria is rich and varied. In some places, trees and vineyards give abundant juicy fruits, rich soil irrigated by numerous sources. Where the soil is soft, bread is sown there, and the rest of the land is left for pasture.» The main occupation of the population was irrigated agriculture. Craft and trade played an important role in the life of society.

ancient Khorezm

The Northern trade route from Central Asia between the rivers since ancient times controlled the Khorezm, referred to as Charitam in «Avesta», Khwarizmis — in Behistun, Chorasmia — in the writings of Arrian and Strabo. The ancient culture of Khorezm, destroyed during the Arab invasion in the VIII century, numbered almost two thousand years. Beruni has described the calendar in Khorezm, leading the countdown to 1292 BC Khorezm was for the entire region of the Holy land «Iranam Micah» of the Avesta, the center of ancient cults. The state Association in the territory of Khorezm existed already in 7-6 centuries BC.

Archaeological evidence suggests that in the second quarter of the 1st Millennium BC in this region was created a powerful irrigation network, feeding from the Amu Darya. In the middle of the 6th century BC Khorezm was conquered by the Persians, who exported precious stones, pottery, jewelers, artisans from Khorezm. The best builders went to build Royal palaces.

In the description of the construction of the Palace of Darius I in Susa reported on the delivery of dark blue gem from Khorezm. In the 5-4 centuries BC Khorezm sought independence from the Persians. From IV-III centuries BC Khorezm writing is known, a large religious and administrative center, the Royal residence-Toprak — Kala, an ancient mausoleum, a temple and an Observatory-Koy — Krylgan-Kala are known. Greek sources report that in the winter of 329-328 BC the Khorezmian king Farisman concluded a peace Treaty with Alexander the great.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN CENTRAL ASIA

In 334 BC, Alexander began marching to Asia. Having conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, Iran, in the spring of 329, crossing the Hindu Kush mountain range, Alexander invaded the territory of Central Asia. Satrap Bactria and Sogdiana (Sogdiana) Bess, who took the title of king and the name Artaxerxes, learning of the approach of Alexander leaves Bactria and goes for the Amu Darya on the territory of Sogdiana. Alexander stealthily crossed the Amu Darya. Bess could not stop him because by this time, was deprived of his liberty his recent supporters-Spitamen and Datafarm. They sent their messengers to Alexander with a proposal to send a detachment to capture Bess. In Nautak (the North-Eastern part of the Kashkadarya valley) Alexander conquers several fortresses. Leaving the garrison in Marakand, he goes to the land of Saks, to the Syr Darya.

On the way Macedonians met strong resistance from the local population — mountaineers Ustrushana. At the same time Alexander was seriously wounded. In the rear of the uprising began «riverine barbarians» who killed the Macedonian garrisons. At the same time rise Sogdians led by Spitamen. The Bactrians joined the Sogdians. Spitamen openly opposed Alexander and besieged the Macedonian garrison in Marakand. On the banks of the Syr Darya in the shortest possible time the Macedonians built the fortress of Alexandria Dalnaya (Alexandria Eskhata). Alexander hastily makes peace with the Saks and throws the main forces against Spitamen. From autumn 329 to autumn 328 regular punitive actions of the Greek-Macedonian troops on the territory of Sogd did not bring Alexander the expected result.

After two years of exhausting and unsuccessful struggle, he changes tactics and goes for rapprochement with the local nobility. Quintus Curtius Rufus writes: «Those of the barbarians who submitted, he ordered to give the city and the land of those who persisted in disobedience.» As a result, Alexander manages to attract a significant number of local and form military contingents of Sogdians and Bactrians. In the autumn of 328, took place the decisive battle with Alexander Spitamen, which loses the battle and flees to the wilderness, where his recent allies executed him. Having conquered the mountain fortresses of Horien and oksiart in the mountains of Hissar, Alexander marries the daughter of oksiart — Roxane, thereby becoming related to the local nobility. Having put a certain Oropius, one of the representatives of the Sogdian nobility, who sided with Alexander, as the king of Sogdiana, he finished the conquest of Central Asia. Crossing the Amu Darya, in the same summer of 327, he crossed the Hindu Kush and began his famous Indian campaign.

THE SELEUCID STATE

After the death of Spitamen and the consensus with Alexander’s Sogdian-Baktrian crest in 327 BC, Central Asia was included in the global Empire of Alexander. Military units of the local nobility are included in his army. In 323, when the news of Alexander’s death reached Central Asia, Greek settlers in Sogdiana and Bactria gathered a detachment of 20,000 infantry and 3,000 horsemen, intending to return to their homeland. Intercept was sent to the commander of Perdiccas, a companion of Alexander. He managed to disarm and kill the fugitives. The Satrap of Sogdiana of the local nobles, sympathetic to the departure of the Macedonians, was displaced. He was replaced by the Macedonian Philip, who ruled for some time two satraps — Sogdiana and Bactria. After 315 years, all the appointed satraps of the local nobility were replaced by the Greeks and Macedonians, with the exception of oxiart (father of Alexander) and Iranian Atropat (father-in-law Perdiki).

In the year 312, one of the generals of Alexander, Seleucus was given Babylonia. Soon he expanded his possessions to the Syr Darya and Indus, and his son Antiochus 1 Soter (born from the marriage of Seleucus with Apama — the daughter of Spitamen) took over most of the Asian territories of Alexander. On the territory of Central Asia was formed one satrapy, which included Sogdiana and Bactria with Margiana. Khorezm was not subordinated to Seleucids. During the period of Achaemenids and Alexander, it kept its independence. Seleucus and Antiochus paid great attention to strengthening their positions in Central Asia. Actively built fortresses and cities inhabited by the Greeks. Historical tradition ascribes to Seleucus the construction of 75 new cities. The most distant, according to Pliny, the city of Antioch for Akartam. There is an assumption that it was located in the area of modern Tashkent (Kanka settlement) or in the Fergana valley. Until the 60s of the III century BC in Bactra There was Seleucid mint, which produced gold and silver coins, mostly of large denominations. Since the beginning of the reign of Seleucid ruler Antiochus II (261-247 gg. his Satrap in Bactria, a Diodotus, minted Seleucid coins, which indicates a certain autonomy. Bactria, Sogdiana and other areas of Central Asia continue to live their economic life, significantly differing from the Western provinces of the Kingdom of the Seleucids.

GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGDOM

In 256 BC satrapy of Parthia, Bactria and Sogdiana separated from the state of Seleucids. Satrap Bactria Diodotus proclaimed himself king and began the struggle for hegemony in the region. In response, the Arshakids seized power in Parthia. Sogdiana obeyed Bactria. In 230 BC, the Satrap of Sogdiana Evtidem overthrew the successor of Diodotus. Between the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Parthia was a constant struggle because of the possession of trade routes. In 209-208 BC Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great makes an Eastern campaign to restore the former power of the Seleucid power. Defeating Parthia in 207. he begins military action against Greco-Bactria. Estidama troops were defeated and Antiochus laid siege to the capital town of baktri. The siege lasted for two years. Defended town of baktri, Euthydemus negotiated peace Treaty with Antiochus, and Antiochus gives all the elephants. In turn, the son of Euthydemus, Demetrius gets married Seleucid Princess. The defeat inflicted by the Romans on the Seleucids at the battle of magnesia opens up the possibility for the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom to expand to the southern principalities formerly allied to the Seleucids.

Around 187 BC Demetrius, who succeeded his father’s throne, conquered Arachosia and went to India. In 171, during the long absence of Demetrius, who stayed with the troops in Northern India, power in Bactra Captures one of his generals — Eucratides. The Kingdom of Eucratides is called «the Kingdom of a thousand cities». Chinese sources indicate that in 165 BC of Semirechye came uechi, who crossed the Syr Darya and went to the shores of the Amu Darya. They managed to conquer Bactria. 155 year Evkratid during one of the campaigns, was killed by his own son. By this time include the formation of the Greco-Indian Kingdom. To 141-128 he attributed the fall of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Perhaps after yuetjis of Bactria king Helial retained power in Paropamisadae or Arahosia. Two centuries of entering the Hellenistic world left a deep mark on the territory of Central Asia. Sogd and Bactria became satraps, relying on the Hellenic-Macedonian military units. There were new cities (Herat, Merv). Greek was the language of the rulers and the military elite. Coins of Greek standard were minted in the region. The Pantheon of Greek gods, Greek literature and Greek theatre became available to the local elite. There is a synthesis of the traditions of local and Greek cultures.

KANGJU

Chinese historian Si MA-Tsyan in his chronicle writes about nomadic state of Kangyuy or Kanzul and Kangha, where «customs similar to uechi». Of ancient authors about the state of Kangha is not mentioned, but it is referred to in the Avesta, and also in the Mahabharata, which, along with the Sakas and Tocharians are mentioned, and Kanka. According to later Chinese Chronicles, Kangyu was subordinated to all countries North of the Amu Darya: Bukhara, Shahrisabz, Kattakurgan district, Tashkent oasis and the Northern part of Khorezm. Chinese sources report that the rulers in the kangyu state were called «Chao-Wu.» Probably, «jabgu» — so sounds in Chinese transcription. The second half of the 2nd century BC — 1st century ad was the time of the greatest power of the kangyu state. A short-lived crisis in Kangyuy, when southern hegemony belonged to wajam, and in the North-East — the Huns, the newly replaced rise with the weakening of the Kingdom by ueja in Bactria. In the 2-1 centuries BC in Kangyue, an attempt was made to establish the minting of its own coins and monetary circulation. As a sample, the coin types that existed during the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom were chosen.

Excavations in the territory of Khorezm, in particular, the fortress of Janbas-Kala in the right-Bank Khorezm give a clear idea of the level of material culture. Fortress size 200×170 m surrounded by walls of mud brick height of 10-11 m. From the gate inside is a wide street. At the end of the street, the remains of the building — a communal sanctuary of fire with an oval elevation for a metal altar-were opened. In the kangyu period there were various religious beliefs: Zoroastrianism, the cult of Anahita, the cult of Mithras, embodied in the image of a horse. One of the great achievements of this time in the field of military equipment associated with the Kangyui culture is a tactical technique, which later became widespread: the use in combat of a closed system of heavy-armored riders on armored horses. The horsemen’s armament consisted of a bow, a spear, and a long sword. Very little is known about the future political fate of the kangyu state. It is unknown whether it was included in the Kushan Kingdom. According to Chinese sources, after the beginning of our era kangju retains a certain autonomy, subordinating yantsay (aorsy-Alans) and other tribes.

Kushan Kingdom

The invasion of the Yueh-Chih in the middle of the II century BC in the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom leads to its eventual disintegration. Initial possessions of yuetji was in the North of Bactria (in the South of modern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan). The Kushan Kingdom emerged in the first half or the middle of the first century of our era as the result of the elevation of the Principality Yacheistova Kushans (in Chinese gear — Guisan), which apparently corresponds to the name of one of the tribes of the Yueh-Chih. The founder of the Kingdom was yabgu (Prince), then the king Kujula Kadfiz (Kadfiz I), in which Kushan conquered most of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Under his successor, Vim Tok, a large part of India was annexed to the Kushan possessions. Its Golden age of the Kushan Kingdom was kanishkas time (presumably, the 78-123гг. BC). The capital is transferred from Bactria to Peshawar, the territory extends to India and Hotan.

In Central Asia, the Northern border of the Kushan possessions passed along the Hissar ridge in the South of Uzbekistan, where powerful border walls were built in the mountain passes (Derbend). New cities are being built, trade relations with India, China and the Roman Empire are being established. During the excavations of Pompeii found Kushan coins and a figure made of bone, made by Kushan master. In the Kushan period, architecture reached a high level of development. Special attention was paid to the construction of palaces and temples. The Palace of Kushan rulers in Halchayan and Buddhist temples in Old Termez and Dalverzin preserved highly artistic works of wall painting and sculpture. During the excavations of halchayan, Dalverzintepe, Ayrtam, archaeologists discovered bronze vessels, elegant candlesticks, mirrors, beautiful jewelry, indicating the high skill of Kushan artisans.

The basis of the economy of the Empire was irrigation farming. Fertilizers were used to increase the yield. In the foothills and steppes developed herding. During the excavations of ancient Termez found inscriptions made on the basis of Aramaic writing. Kushan italic letter was characterized by a combination of acute-angled, square and rounded forms of letters and was widespread. When Kanishka comes to the Kushan Kingdom Buddhism, which soon becomes the state religion of Kushan. However, at the same time, Zoroastrianism continues to exist, as well as local Central Asian, Indian, Iranian, Greek and Egyptian cults. At the end of the first half of the 3rd century ad the Kushan Kingdom ceased to exist. Bactria-Tokharistan became part of the Sassanid Empire on the rights of special possession, managed by members of the Royal house of Sassanids, who bore the title of kushanshah.

THE STATE OF EPHTALITES

The state of the Hephthalites formed on part of the territory of the Kushan Empire after its fall. The bulk of the population was engaged in agriculture, some continued to lead a nomadic lifestyle. In written sources disclosed information about the Hephthalites, beginning 457 years, when their king Ahsanur subdued Chaghanian, Tokharistan and Badakhshan. The sources provide a vivid but controversial picture of Sasanian Iran wars against the Hephthalites. Sassanian king Peroz, fearing the growing expansion of the hephtalites, opposed them, but was captured and turned for help to Byzantium, indicating that the invasion of the nomads are a threat to her. As a result, Peroz was released for a ransom granted by the Emperor of Byzantium. Perez promised to give the Hephthalites border town Talkan, but has not fulfilled the promises and made a second trip, which again failed, and Perez, leaving the Hephthalites hostage infant son for two years, paid a great tribute. In 484 was held on another trip Peroz. At this time, he and his army were in a specially prepared warriors of the Ephtalites wolf pit and died. The Ephtalites, having finally defeated Peroz, imposed a heavy tribute on Iran and occupied Merv. Then they occupied the valley of Kabul and Punjab, conquered Karashar, Kuch, Kashgar and Khotan.

Thus, they United Central Asia, Eastern Iran, Northern part of India and Eastern Turkestan into a powerful single power. Under Peroz’s son cavad, who spent his childhood at the court of ephtalite as a hostage, Iran continued to pay tribute to the Ephtalites. According to the Byzantine historian Procopius (6th C.), the Ephtalites «were governed by one king and observed justice between themselves and their neighbors no worse than the Romans (Byzantines) and the Persians.» Home «silk road» the Hephthalites took an active part in international trade. They traded with Iran, Byzantium, India, China. Epic legends of the Hephthalites on the war with Peroz preserved in «Shah-name», which reflects the struggle with the Turks Ephtalites in the story about the new king Gatherd. Academician V. V. Bartold suggests that it is possible to see that Gatherd historical Catalpa from the Byzantine sources. Karulf of revenge for the wrongs done to his wife by the king, fled to Iran, betrayed his country to the Turks. The Ephtalites politically United a large number of peoples, which is connected with the simultaneous existence of many religious systems and cults. Zoroastrianism is intertwined with local cults of Anahita, Siyavush, miter. Buddhism is widespread.

Turkic Kaganate

In the middle of the VI century the Turkic tribes of Altai, United with neighboring tribes, created «the most powerful of all the nomadic empires of the pre-Mongol period» — the Turkic Khaganate. Two brothers, Tomine and Istemi, led extensive public education. While Tuming expanded its possessions in the Eastern part of the khanate, his brother Istemi was busy in the Western part of the Union of the tribes of Semirechye and adjacent areas of East Turkestan. The westward expansion brought him in contact with the possessions of the new state. In 563-567gg. the Turks defeated the new power and collided on the Amu Darya from Sasanian Iran. While the Turks and Iran had in the face of the Ephtalites of the common enemy, their relationship has been friendly, shahanshah Khosrow Anushirvan even married a Turkic Princess. When the Turks defeated the Hephthalites, between them and Iran were in conflict. The desire of the Turks to master the most important trade routes contributed to the tension in relations with Iran. The Istemi Embassy in Iran on trade issues was unsuccessful and the members of the second and last Embassy were poisoned. After that, the Turks decide in Alliance with Byzantium to start a fight with Iran.

In 568-569 in Constantinople took place, and apparently successfully the first Embassy headed by Maniachus. The mutual struggle of Byzantium and Iran, distracting their attention from the Kaganate, greatly contributed to the rapid growth of the semi-nomadic state of the Turks. The Turks made a number of successful raids on China, weakened by internal turmoil, and achieved a large annual tribute in the form of cuts of silk. In 588, the ruler of the Turks Kara-Churin in Alliance with Byzantium and the Khazars attacked Iran, but was defeated and killed by Sasanid commander Bahram-Chubin. This defeat was the impetus for the decline of the Kaganate and its disintegration in the 80-ies of VII century in the Eastern and Western parts. In the first half of the VII century in the life of the Western Kaganate there was a rise. Its borders reached the shores of the Indus. Trade relations with China and Iran revived. Caravans kept the route Merv-Chardjui-Bukhara-Samarkand-Chach-Talas-Suyab and further to the oases of Eastern Turkestan. Along the way, caravans met Sogdian colonies, to a certain extent contributing to the rapid advancement of caravans. Around 630, the Chinese, recent allies of the Turks, inflict a decisive defeat on them. At the end of the VII century, a new powerful enemy is coming from the West — the Arabs, who subordinated Central Asia to their power. The Western Turkic Khaganate ceased to exist in 704, when power in Semirechye passed into the hands of the Turgesh.

SUGHD

In IV-VIII centuries Sogdians became the main intermediaries in trade of the Far East, Central Asia and the Middle East, actually and, having organized, regular international caravan trade throughout the Great silk road. Sogdiana at this time was a community of principalities and free cities, notably Samarkand, Meiburg, Kesh, Nakhshab, Ishtihan, Dishes, Bukhara, Amul and andhoy. All the ways to China (silk roads) from the South through Khotan and the southern part of East Turkestan to the Forehead-Hole to the North through the rivers, there were colonies of Sogdian, which lasted until the XII century BC, a major Sogdian colonies in Turkestan and China, it was in the cities, a Lot of, Chang’an, Lanzhou, Dunhuang, Luoyang, where the Sogdians lived distinct communities. Only in Dunhuang in the IV century the Sogdian community numbered about 1000 people.

The Eastern gate of Samarkand is called «Chinese». International trade was controlled by rich Sogdian houses of the major cities: Samarkand, Paikend, etc. They provided loans, through its agents supervised commercial transactions. In the history of the Tang dynasty, it is said that in the possession of Kang (Sogd), «the born boy’s tongue is smeared with stone honey, and glue is put on his palm so that he is sweet-spoken and firmly holds the money… a Man who has reached twenty years old goes to neighboring possessions and will visit everywhere where he only foresees benefit.» Long trips, contact with the craft and customs of China, India, Iran, Turkey formed an open culture of medieval Sogdiana, unique for its synthesis of achievements of the West and the East. The need for the security of trade routes and centers of Sogdian craft — Samarkand, Penjikent, Paikend, Bukhara and varakhshi — determined the political orientation of the Union with strong state entities.

In the sixth century Sogdiana is in the State of Ephtalites, and later Turkic khanate, from 630 onwards recognizes the rule of the Chinese Tang dynasty. During the heyday of the Khaganate, Sogdians were able to trade silk received by the Turks in the form of tribute from China. In the 70s of the VI century, on behalf of the Turkic rulers, the Sogdian merchant Maniah negotiated trade guarantees first with the Shah of Iran, and then with the Byzantine Emperor. In the middle ages the Sogdian language became the main language of communication on the Great Silk road. Buddhists, Christians, Manichaeans translate their religious texts in the Sogdian language, using their written tradition: Indian alphabet of the Buddhists, the Aramaic script — the Manichaeans, the original General letter to the Christians-the Syrians, religious alphabets Nestorians and Jacobites. However, they could not supersede the Sogdian writing on the basis of the Aramaic script, later adopted by the Uighurs. Samples of this writing can be found in the «old letters» from the colony in Dunhuang and documents found on mount mug in the Zarafshan valley. At the beginning of the VIII century, Sughd was defeated by the Muslim troops of Kuteiba Ibn Muslim and obeys the Caliphate, remaining a powerful trade and craft center in the geopolitical space of Islam.

ARAB CONQUEST

In VII century after fierce inter-tribal wars the small city of Medina became the center of political unification of Arab tribes. Leaders of nomadic tribes are quickly rallying around the Medina, directing their forces against neighboring oases and cities. Winning one victory after another, the Arabs quickly captured Syria, Palestine, Iran, and in 651 they were already at Merv and without a fight took it. The Arab victories are due not so much to their strength as to the weakness and fragmentation of the captured countries. The first, apparently, passed Amu Darya ubaidullah Ibn Ziyad, sent here by the Caliph Muawiya in 674. He besieged and took Paikend, defeated the Bukhara Queen, from where he took out a rich booty — weapons, clothing, gold, silver and many prisoners. To the aid of Bukhara decided to come the rulers of Sogdiana, Cache and NESARA, but the story of Narshakhi, the Arab army made of the people so awful that they left the field of battle. According to the Arab historian Belazuri, Bukhara prisoners were turned into slaves. Freedom-loving Bukharans could not accept their fate. They entered the Palace of said Ibn Osman and killed him.

SAMANIDS STATE

In the early 20s of the 9th century in Mawarannahr, Assad Ibn Saman and his sons stood out for their devotion to the Caliphate, who in 806-810 took vigorous measures against Rafi Ibn-leis, who rebelled against the Caliph in Samarkand. Their ancestor Saman came from damanskogo kind of Ferghana (there are also versions that he was a native of Balkh areas or Termez). As a reward for his faithful service, by order of Caliph al-Mamun, the Governor of Khorasan, Hassan Ibn Abbad (819-821), appoints the sons of Assad Ibn Saman as governors of the most important regions and cities. Nuh receives Samarkand, Ahmad-Fergana, Yahya-Shash and Ustrushana, Ilyas — Herat. The head of the family was considered to be Noah, and after his death, Ahmad Ibn Asad. Under Ahmad Samanids seek autonomy from the Caliphate and tahirids.

The family of Ahmad Ibn al-Assad subordinates all Samanid possessions, forming a vast state in Mawarannahr. Ahmad’s policy was continued by his son Nasr, who was sitting in Samarkand. Ignoring the influence of the Samanids, Calif Mutagim transfers in 875 Nasr Ibn Ahmad (875-892) was the right to own all maverannakhra with the capital in Samarkand. In 892 Emir of Transoxiana becomes brother Nasr Ismail (892-907 years), with 874 ruled in Bukhara. In 900, Ismail Samani defeated Saffarid AMR Ibn leys At the battle of Balkh. Khorasan, and Sistan and later included in the composition of the Samanid state. Khorasan was ruled from Nishapur By the Samanid Governor until 999. Ismail was succeeded by his son Ahmad Ibn Ismail (907-914). During the reign of Samanid Nasr II (914-943) in the 30-40-ies of the 10th century in the state is spreading the doctrine of the carmathians, which had to fight his son, o Muhammad I (943-954).

Under the Samanids in Transoxiana starts flourishing of crafts, construction and culture. Caravan trade is of great importance. The Great silk road is revived, its new branches appear. Cities are being rebuilt. There are many new centers of weaving, pottery, copper, carpentry and other crafts. Inside the cities built caravanserais, mosques, madrassas. During this period lived and worked great scientists-encyclopedists al-Khorezm, al-Fargoni, Abu Nasr Farobi, Ibn Sina, Abu Rayhan Beruni, Narshahi and others. With 945 starts, constant unrest in Khorasan. Under Samanids Abd-al-Melik Ibn Nuh (954-961) and his brother Mansur (961-976), the son of Mansur — Nuh II (976-997), the son of Nuh II — Abd-al-Melik II (997-999), the state gradually weakened. In the year 999 the Samanids inferior to Transoxiana to the Turkic rulers Karahanids. The Samanid state ceases to exist. The last Samanid ruler al-Muntasir — brother of Abd-al-Melik II, was killed in 1005.

THE STATE OF KARAKHANIDS

In the late 10th century on the territory of Semirechie and Eastern Turkestan formed the Kara-khanid state (Kara — the people, Karakhan, ruler of the people) headed by «padishah Yagma» or «ilakkanam». In its structure joined various Turkic peoples, the Qarluqs, chili, argu, Yagma and others that to the 960 already converted to Islam. In the year 992 Karakhanid troops, led by ilakkanam Bogra invaded Transoxiana. The success of the Karakhanids was facilitated by a secret Alliance prisoner Bogra-Khan with the Samanid Governor of Khurasan by Avicenna Simgeram and cheating military chief Voice. As a result, the Karakhanids captured Bukhara almost without a fight, and Emir Nuh II fled to Chardjui. However, Bogra Khan fell ill, went home to Kashgar and died on the way. The Karakhanids of Transoxiana left with rich booty. The new head of the Karakhanids became Ilkhan Nasr, who resumed the offensive against Bukhara. In 995-996 Nuh II with the help of Sabuk-Tegin repels the attack of the Karakhanids.

In 999 Bukhara was again captured by the Karakhanids, and Emir Abd-al-Melik II and the whole Royal family were captured by them. This finally resolved the issue of power in Maverannahr in favor of the Karakhanids. Karakhanid state covered the land from Kashgar to Amu Darya and included part of Eastern Turkestan, seven rivers, Shash, Fergana and the land of ancient Sogd. Until 1005, the last Samanid al-Muntasir successfully fought the Karakhanids, but the superior forces of the latter ensured victory. With the blessing of the Caliph of Baghdad, Ilkhan Nasr Ibn Ali approved of his power over maverannakhra. After conquering Transoxiana, the Qarakhanids destroyed the class of farmers and their land and water were transferred to the jurisdiction of the state and in the form of «ICTY» were distributed to military leaders and clergy. After the death of elekana Nasr in the year 1012 he was succeeded by his brother Ali-Tegin. The Qarakhanids were in constant war with the neighbouring state over the Ghaznavid lands of the valley of the Amu Darya, and in the late 11th century, fell into vassalage to the rise of the Seljuk state. The capital of elekana was originally located in Uzgen, and then was moved to Samarkand. Bukhara is also subordinated to Samarkand. Karakhanid khans built a lot in Samarkand, Bukhara, Binkent, built palaces, mosques and madrassas, supported and strengthened the authority of the Muslim clergy.

THE KHOREZM STATE

In the 11th and first half of the 12th century Khorezm was part of the Seljuk state (formed in the 11th century on the ruins of the Ghaznavid state). The rise of Khorezm in the 11th century is closely connected with the policy of the khorezmshakhs of the Turkic dynasty, which went back to Anush-Tegin — a former dignitary of the seljukid Emir. It is known that he made a brilliant career at the court of Melik Shah (1072-1092), where he was at the head of the Department of the Sultan’s «sinks». The competence of this Department was then the management of Khorezm. A clear trend towards the transformation of the Khorezm in the independent the government has shown the grandson of Anush Tegin — Atsyz already wore again revived the title of Khorezmshah. The horesmshakh Atsyz (1127-1156 years) successfully fought against the Seljuk Sultan Sanjar. A cunning diplomat and a determined military leader, he began to conduct an independent foreign policy. So, without the permission of his suzerain Sanjar, he started a war with the Kipchaks and Turkmens.

At the beginning of the 12th century in Central Asia from the East came the new conquerors — Kara-Kitai. Seljukid Sultan Sanjar came to the aid of Samarkand Karakhanid Khan Mahmud, who was his closest relative. The battle of Samarkand with Kara-Kitai ended in the complete defeat of Sanjar. The horesmshakh Atsyz immediately took advantage of the defeat of Sanjar and in the winter of 1141 captured and sacked Merv, and in 1142, is already close to Nishapur. In 1156 Atsyz died, in 1157 his son Il-Arslan (1156-1172) died and continued strengthening of the Khorezm state. He joins the Dihistan with the surrounding area. His son Tekesh (1172-1200 biennium) in 1187 captures Nishapur, in 1192 — Merv, in 1194 — inflicts a decisive defeat on the Sultan of Western Seljuk, resulting in the entire Eastern band of Iran passes into his hands.

In 1195 Tekesh defeated the troops of the Abbasid Caliph, and the Khorezmian troops entered Iraq as full masters. Khorezmshakh Tekesh should be recognized as the most talented ruler of Khorezm, who managed to double the territory and create a powerful state. The weak point of his policy was the patronage of the Kipchak military aristocracy, which, taking advantage of the sympathy of Tekesh’s wife, sought to influence state Affairs as much as possible. Self-willed interference in the state Affairs of the Turkic «generals» subsequently contributed significantly to the fall of the Khorezm state under the son of Tekesh, Khorezmshakh Muhammad.

THE CONQUEST OF CENTRAL ASIA BY GENGHIS KHAN

In 1215, Genghis Khan, consolidating the achievements in Northern China, turns its interests to the West. In 1219 he orders Jeb to Noyon to make it to Eastern Turkestan and Semirechye. Having defeated the state of Kuchluk, the army of Genghis Khan invades Mawarannahr. Khorezmshah Mohammed gives the order to strengthen the city. A large haraj was collected for the strengthening of Samarkand, but the money was spent, and the walls were not strengthened. In 1219, Genghis Khan moved to Otrar — a large and strong fortress. Having divided his forces, he left one part for the siege of Otrar, and the other, led by his son Jochi sent to capture Sygnak, Uzgen, JEND, and then Urgench. A detachment of 5 thousand people was sent up the Syr Darya to the city Benakat and Khujand. Himself Genghis Khan with the main forces shortest road through the arid steppe went to Bukhara. In February 1220 Bukhara was taken. The city was given by Genghis Khan to plunder his soldiers. The news of the terrible fate of Bukhara quickly spread through Transoxiana. The population was in fear and panic. Khorezm Shah Muhammad cowardly idle and was ready to run.

From Bukhara Mongols went to Samarkand. The head of the Samarkand garrison was the Turk tugai Khan, who surrendered the city, hoping to go to the service of Genghis Khan. The Mongols entered the city and massacred. Only a quarter of Samarkand’s population survived. In April 1220, the Mongols took JEND. In the upper parts of the river they took Benakat. The ruler of Khodjent Timur-Melik showed courageous resistance to the Mongols. With a small group he managed to reach Urgench with fights. Before the summer of 1220, the Eastern and Central part of Mawarannahr was captured by the Mongols. The horesmshakh escaped. He died on an island near the southern shore of the Caspian sea. In Urgench Timur-Melik briefly led the army and militia. He fought Jochi successfully. In the autumn of 1220, Genghis Khan stormed Termez. In the winter of 1221, the siege of Urgench began. The inhabitants put up an heroic resistance. Even before the fall of Urgench were taken Balkh and Merv. By the summer of 1221, the entire territory of Central Asia belonged to the Mongols. After the death of Genghis Khan in the division of the Mongol Empire between Genghis Khan Maverannahr was recognized as the lot (ulus) of the son of Genghis Khan — Chagatai. The collection of taxes in favor of the house of Chagatai, was entrusted to a local farmer Mahmoud Yalavach.

THE STATE OF AMIR TEMUR

In the middle of the 14th century in Maverannahr the son of Barlas Bey Temur Taragay stood out for his political activity. Together with the Samarkand ruler Emir Hussein — the grandson of the influential Turkic Emir of Kazagan, Temur began the struggle for the unification of Transoxiana and its liberation from Mongol rule. Later their relationship deteriorated. In 1370, Amir Temur defeated Hussein’s army and was proclaimed Emir of Mawarannahr.

During 1372-1388 Amir Temur made five trips to Khorezm, seeking its complete submission. After that, he begins military campaigns in Iran, Iraq, Transcaucasia, Syria, Turkey. The result was a vast Empire. However, the power of Temur was constantly threatened by the Golden Horde and the White Horde, which were part of the ulus Jochi.

In 1379, Amir Temur promoted Tokhtamysh to the throne of the White Horde. However, Tokhtamysh after the victory over Mamai (1380) captures the Supreme power in the Golden Horde and begins expansion into the possession of Temur. In response, the Amir Timur Tokhtamysh inflicts a major defeat in the battle of 1391 have Kunduchi and in 1395 in the valley of the river Terek in the North Caucasus. At the same time, the forces of Tokhtamysh were so weakened that Temur opened a free road in the Volga region, to the capital of the Golden Horde — Sarai Berke. The city was captured, looted and burned.

In 1398-1399, the famous Indian campaign took place, from which a huge production was taken out. In 1400, Amir Temur fought the Turkish Sultan Bayazed 1 and the Egyptian Sultan Faraj. In 1402, under Ankara, the Ottoman Sultan was utterly defeated, which delayed the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks for 50 years. At the end of 1404 Temur led 200-thousand troops marched on China. However, the death of Temur on February 18, 1405 in Otrar interrupted this campaign.

The reign of Amir Temur was a time of intensive development of economy, trade and culture of Mawarannahr, which became part of a vast Empire. 14-15 centuries — the time of the Temurid «Renaissance» — is often called in the history of Central Asia «Golden age». This century gave the world the greatest scientists, brilliant poets and artists. Isfahani in «the Book of Bukhara’s guest» tells about the development of cotton production and manufacture in Samarkand cotton and silk fabrics. Temur believed that the world was «improved thanks to the merchants» and spent a lot of money on the construction of new roads, commercial buildings. It is under Temur that economic and political ties with the countries of the Near and Middle East and West, with distant European countries: Spain, France, England are expanding.

THE TIMURID STATE (1405-1450)

After the death of Amir Temur for five years in Transoxiana was internecine and dynastic war. In 1409, the son of Temur Shahrukh (1376-1447) defeated Khalil Sultan, the son of his brother Miranshah, and nominally became the head of a single Temur power. However, in fact, it already consisted of two States. Shahrukh ruled Khorasan — with the center in Herat, and in Maverannakhr, with the capital in Samarkand, his son Mirzo Ulugbek (1394-1449) began to rule. Both Nations represented the Association of small fiefdoms, headed by the Temurids, many of which claims to greater power. The grandson of Shahrukh — Sultan-Mohammed, appointed the ruler of Iran, began to show such independence that Shahrukh personally led a large army had to restore order.

logback conducted an independent foreign policy. He keenly followed the developments on the lower Syr Darya, where the nomadic Uzbeks of the Dasht-I-Kipchak raided Khorezm. In 1419 he supported Barak and helped him to become a Khan in the ulus of nomadic Uzbeks. In Mogolistan, with the help of Ulugbek, after a long strife, the victory was achieved by Khan Shirmukhammed, but soon Ulugbek had to fight with his henchmen. In 1425 Ulugbek breaks Mughal. In 1427, after his relations with Barak deteriorated, he made a trip to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, which ended in the complete defeat of Ulugbek. After the death of Shahrukh in 1447, Ulugbek made an attempt to capture Herat and Khorasan, but he failed. In 1448 he together with his son Abdullatif again undertakes a campaign to Herat, which this time captures. The conquest of Khorasan was prevented by the revolt of the emirs of Khorasan and the invasion of nomadic Uzbeks in Transoxiana led by Khan Abdulkarim. In 1449, Abdullatif started an intrigue against his father, which ended in the death of Ulugbek and the approval of Abdullatif on the throne. However, hated by both the nobility and the people, he was killed on may 8, 1450 as a result of a conspiracy. Power was transferred to Temurid Abdullah, who tried to revive the policy of Ulugbek.

THE TIMURID STATE (1451-1507)

In contrast to Temurid Abdullah, who was supported by the Turkic nobility, Bukhara emirs with the support of the Islamic order of nakshabandiya led by Khoja Ahrar (1404-1490) put forward their candidate for the throne. It was Abu said (1451-1468), grandson of Miranshah, son of Amir Temur. Abu said attracted to his side the Khan of nomadic Uzbeks Abulkhair. In the summer of 1451, a decisive battle took place near Samarkand. Nomadic Uzbeks emerged victorious, the army of Abdullah was dispersed and himself killed Abdullah. Abu-Sayid’s got the power over Samarkand and Maverannahr. His closest adviser was Khoja Ahrar. Khorasan Abu said could not be captured, as the Herat throne from 1452 until his death in 1457 was occupied by the grandson of Shahrukh Abul-Kasym Babur. The relationship between the two rulers was hostile.

In 1457 Abu-Sayid seized the throne of Herat, at the time of combining the two States. However, another Temurid fought for power in Herat — Sultan Hussein baykara, great-grandson of Omar Sheikh, son of Amir Temur. In 1468 Abu-Sayid went to zamowienie Iran and never returned. Sultan Hussein (1469-1506) took advantage of the situation and seized power in Herat. The sons of Abu said refused to fight for power and went to Mawarannahr. In the second half of the 15th century Transoxiana is experiencing a period of political fragmentation. From 1469 to 1494 in Samarkand ruled Sultan Ahmed, son of Abu-said (the actual power here belonged to Khoja Ahrar and the order of Naqshbandiya), in Bukhara — Sultan Ali-Mirza, in Fergana — Zahiriddin Muhammad Babur.

It was Babur who showed the most stubborn resistance to the invasion of nomadic Uzbeks led by Sheibani Khan. In 1497, Andijan troops led by Babur occupied Samarkand. In the spring of 1501 Babur marched from Samarkand to fight with the troops of Sheibani Khan, but was defeated in the battle on the river Kuhak. Leaving Maverannahr, Babur was forced to go to Kabul. Shaibani Khan has developed a vigorous attack on Transoxiana and Khorasan. For 1501-1506, he captures Samarkand, Tashkent, Kyat and Boldumsaz, Urgench, Balkh. The decrepit Sultan Hussein was unable to offer serious resistance to Sheibani Khan. Only after he captured Khorezm, Sultan Hussein decided to go on a campaign, but at the very beginning of the campaign he died. In Herat he was appointed two successors, his sons — Badi al-Zamin and Muzaffar Hussein. Differences between them accelerated the fall of Herat. In 1507 Sheibani Khan captured Herat.

THE STATE OF SHEIBANIDS

Initially, the capital of the Sheibanid state was Samarkand. During the reign of Ubaydulla Khan (1533-1539), despite the difficult military and political situation, much attention was paid to the development of science and culture. Ubaydullah Khan was a very educated man, skillfully recited the Koran and provided him with comments in the Turkic language, was a gifted singer and musician. The name of Abdullah Khan II (1557-1598) is associated with an attempt to create a single strong state. In 1557 he took possession of Bukhara, where after 1561 the capital was moved, and the state became known as the khanate of Bukhara. During his reign, the construction took a wide scope. When it was built a bridge in Kermin across the river Zarafshan, as well as numerous madrassas in Balkh and Bukhara. Khan built a whole ensemble — a mosque, madrasah, house and other buildings around the mausoleum of Imam Abubakr Saad.

After the death of Abdullah Khan in 1598, hopes for the creation of a unified state of Uzbeks collapsed. The last representative of the dynasty of Sheibanids PIR Muhammad was quite an ordinary person and had no political influence among the feudal rulers. Unable to cope with the coming anarchy, he soon died in internecine struggle. The internal and external opponents of the Bukhara khanate immediately took advantage of the absence of the Central government and the disorder that reigned in the country. In the South, the Iranian Shah Abbas captured Sabzevar, Mashhad and Herat. In Balkh he planted his protégé Muhammad Ibrahim. Kazakh sultans captured one of the largest destinies — Tashkent. Khorezm regained its independence. «Throughout the state there were troubles and anarchy, no one wanted to submit to another,» writes Muhammad Yusuf Munshi about these years. As a result of internecine strife and wars, three khanates were formed: Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand.

KHIVA KHANATE

In 1505, the troops of Sheibani Khan conquered the Khwarezm. However, in 1512 the Khan’s power passed into the hands of Ilbars Khan, the leader of another branch of nomadic Uzbeks. Since that time, has its existence the khanate of Khiva, the capital of which at various times was Vazir, old Urgench, Khiva. Part of the khanate, in addition to the Khorezm oasis was part of the Mangyshlak areas Balkanskih mountains, Dehistan, Uzboy and the Middle of Khorasan. In the struggle for hegemony in Central Asia with the khanate of Bukhara Khiva troops devastated Karakul, Chardjui, Vardanzi and got to Kermine. In 1662 the Khan of Khiva Abulgazi after the next attack made peace with the Bukhara Khan Abdulazizom. However, the raids on Bukhara were continued under his son Anusha Khan (1663-1687).

In 1685, Khiva managed to capture Samarkand. However, under Gijduvan Anusha Khan was defeated and was forced to leave Samarkand. Soon Bukhara Khan organized a conspiracy against Anush Khan, which was attended by the son of Anushi Irnak (Ereng). In 1687, Anusha was captured and blinded. In 1688, the Bukhara Khan Subhonkul achieved the subjugation of Khiva and appointed its ruler Shah Niyaz, who later adopted the title of Khan. Shah Niyaz sought to strengthen the Khan’s power and free himself from dependence on Bukhara.

To this end, in 1700, secretly from Bukhara, he sent to Peter 1 Ambassador with a request to accept him «with all his people» in the citizenship of Russia. Apparently, the Khan Arab-Muhammad (1702-1714) also counted on the support of Russia. During the reign of Shirgazi Khan (1715-1728), internal feudal troubles tore the state apart. In 1717, the khanate of Khiva managed to successfully repel the invasion of the military expedition of the Russian state led by A. Bekovich-Cherkassky. After Shirgazi Khan became Ilbars (1728-1740). Taking advantage of the absence of the Iranian Shah Nadir, who at that time undertook a campaign in Afghanistan and India, Ilbars raided Khorasan. This, as well as Khiva’s refusal to recognize dependence on Iran and its military support for Bukhara, prompted Nadir Shah to undertake a campaign against Khorezm.

In the battle of Hazarasp Ilbars was defeated. Iranian troops took Khanka, and ilbars himself was killed in the battle. After a four-day siege, Nadir Shah took the capital. A significant part of the Khiva army was attached to the forces of Nadir Shah. In Khiva, the Governor of Nadir Shah was planted and the Iranian garrison left. However, Iran’s power did not extend to the Northern part of the khanate. Here among the aralians was established Nurali — the son of Abul-Khair, Khan of the Small Kazakh ulus, in 1730-1732, who took Russian citizenship. In 1741 the people of Khiva rebelled against Iran. Khiva was taken by the rebels, the Governor and the garrison were killed. Nurali occupied the Khan’s throne. Nadir Shah, on hearing of these events, gave the order to his son Nasrullah Mirza to act in Khorezm. Khiva dignitaries, who contributed to the construction of Nurali to the throne, hurried to Merv to confess. At their request, Nadir appointed Abu Muhammad, son of Ilbars, Khan of Khiva. Nurali fled to the steppe. During the 40s of the 18th century several khans were replaced in Khiva.

BUKHARA EMIRATE

After the death of Rahim-Biy in 1758, the mangyts nominated his uncle, the ruler of Miankal Daniyar-Biy (1758-1785) to the place of the Emir. However, he failed to maintain a strong Central government. For several decades, internecine strife and clashes between supporters and opponents of the mangyts were prolonged, specific rulers claimed independence. In 1784 in Bukhara citizens dissatisfied with weakness of Daniyar-Biy revolted, and Daniyar-Biy conceded the power to the son Shakhmurad (1785-1800). Innovations Shahmurad started with the fact that eliminated two major dignitaries — the dawlat Kushbegi and Nizamuddin of kastalon, killing them in the Archway to the eyes of courtiers. Then Shahmurad solemnly handed residents of Bukhara Tarkhan letter, releases them from some taxes. The text of the letter was carved on a stone attached to the aivan of the great mosque. Instead, he established a new tax «Jul» for the troops in case of war. Having concentrated power in his hands, he renounced the Khan’s title, remaining the Emir.

On the throne he put first Danishmandchu, and then Abulgazi of the descendants of Genghis Khan, who had no real power. In 1785, Shahmurad carried out a monetary reform, starting to produce full-fledged silver coins of 0.7 miskal (3.36 g), as well as unified gold coins. He personally headed the judicial Department. Shahmurad returned to the Bukhara Emirate the left Bank of the Amu Darya with Balkh and Merv. In 1786 he suppressed the rebellion in the County Kermine, then made successful tours to Shakhrisabz, and Khujand. Shahmurad successfully fought with the Afghan ruler Timur Shah, having managed to preserve the areas of southern Turkestan inhabited by Uzbeks and Tajiks. When Amir Haydar (1800-1826) received the throne from his father, the whole of Transoxiana was subordinate to his authority. The accession of Haidar to the throne was accompanied by strife and mass uprisings. In 1800 the Turkmens of Merv rebelled. Soon war with Kokand for Uratyube which Haidar managed to defend was added to internal civil strife.

Under Emir Haidar, the political system was a centralized monarchy, developing towards absolutism. Emir Haidar had a bureaucracy numbering up to 4 thousand people. The army increased. Only in Bukhara, there were 12 thousand permanent troops. Ahmad Danish reports that «the reign of Emir Haidar can be described as a time of continuous feudal wars that occurred every 3-6 months.» Haidar was succeeded by his son Nasrullah (1826-1860). To clear his path to power, his older brothers Hussein and Umar were killed. Relying on the army and the Union with the clergy, Nasrallah led a fierce struggle against feudal fragmentation, seeking to curb the nobility. During the first month of his reign, he executed 50-100 people daily. He sought the unification of the regions that were nominally part of the Emirate. The management of the provinces, he drew a «rootless» people are completely obliged to him. The rule of Nasrullah was accompanied by continuous wars with Khiva and Kokand khanates for separate border areas — Merv, Chardjui, Uratyube, Khodjent. Persistent was the resistance of the rulers of Shahrisabz and Kitab. Only in 1853, after repeated military campaigns, they were subordinated to Bukhara. Only the valley in the middle and lower reaches of Zarafshan was firmly part of the Emirate.

KOKAND KHANATE

In the early 18th century in a political crisis ashtarkhanids khanate of Bukhara Fergana separated. An independent state is formed with the center in Kokand, where the power of the Khoja, and then the Khan’s Ming dynasty, is first established. Khanate included Namangan, Kokand, Andijan and Margilan regions. The first ruler was proclaimed Shahrukh-Biy from the Uzbek Ming tribe. In 1721-1722 Shahrukh was killed as a result of quarrels between separate groups of emirs. Was succeeded by his son Abdurahim-Biy (1721-1733), who joined Khujand and Andijan, and was then in the khanate of Bukhara, Samarkand, Kattakurgan and Jizzakh. During the reign of his brother Abdulkarimi (1733-1748) was conquered by Osh. The next twenty years were marked by frequent changes of rulers.

In 1770 the Kokand nobility proclaimed Narbut (1770-1800) the ruler. He managed to suppress the separatism of the rulers Chust, Namangan and Khodjent. Narbuta-Biy sent troops to Tashkent, but could not conquer the city. Under Narbut-BIE there was a relative political calm, which had a beneficial effect on economic development. Has been expanded irrigation system, built a new madrasah, including madrassas the World. Narbut was succeeded by his son alimbay (1800-1809), who greatly increased the political importance of Kokand. In 1805, the state was officially declared Kokand khanate, and Alimbek was awarded the title of «Khan». He created a mercenary army consisting of mountain Tajiks, which became his support in the struggle for the centralization of power. Alimkhan subdued Tashkent and Fergana, made numerous trips to Ura-tube. As a result of the conspiracy, Alim Khan was killed and the throne was taken by his brother the theme (1809-1822). He signed a contract with the Bukhara Emir Haidar and attached to the khanate of the Kazakh land to the mouth of the Syr Darya. At the intersection of roads from Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva Omarkhan built a fortification of AK-mosque. Omarkhan had the title «Lord of the faithful» — «Emir ul-Muslim», minted a coin with his name. When it was introduced administrative system used in the Bukhara khanate.

The heir of Omarkhan was 12-year-old son Muhammad Alikhan (Madalikhan) (1822-1842). Given the Khan’s youth in the early years, the state was ruled by his mother – an outstanding poet Nodirabegim, who made a significant contribution to the development of culture and art in Kokand. Medalion made a number of successful campaigns in East Turkestan and Kashgar, in order to subdue the mountain Tajiks in the Alay range. Under his rule, a developed irrigation system was created in the khanate, foreign trade ties were strengthened. Flatterers called him «Ghazi» (a fighter for the faith), but the clergy considered him a apostate. Opponents of the Khan sent a complaint to the Emir of Bukhara Nasrullah. In 1840, the Bukhara ruler sent his Ambassador to Kokand with a fatwa, in which Madalikhan was recognized as a kafir (infidel). Having failed in the battle with the troops of Emir Nasrullah, Madalikhan recognized himself as a vassal of Bukhara and was forced to yield to Khodjent. But even after that, relations between Bukhara and Kokand continued to deteriorate. As a result, in 1841 Muhammad Alikhan gave up the throne in favor of his younger brother Sultan Mahmudhan.

Then in 1842, the Emir Nasrallah again seized the Kokand. By order of the Emir were executed Madalikhan, his brother Sultan Mahmudhan and mother Nodirabegim, as well as a number of high-ranking officials. By order of Nasrullah khanate was ruled by his Governor, who imposed a heavy tax burden on the inhabitants of Kokand. In the end, in the summer of 1842 in the khanate he raised a rebellion, in the course of which were killed by the henchmen of the Emir and the seat of the ruler of Kokand, was nominated by Khan nephew Norbury-beating – Sherali. The Emir of Bukhara, Nasrullah re-precipitates in Kokand. But after 40 days, after receiving the message about the invasion of the Khan of Khiva of Allakulihan to the territory of his Emirate was forced to lift the siege and go back.

During the reign of Serliana (1842-1845 ), Musulmankul from the tribe of Kipchak, who were instrumental to his coming to the throne, was appointed mingboshi (commander). The latter, in turn, filled most of the fighting ranks of their tribesmen. Using his influence among the soldiers, he tried to influence the ruler, but Keralian did not succumb to it.

Not having achieved its goal, in 1845 the Muslim Organized an attempt on the Khan, when he went to Osh to suppress the revolt that broke out because of discontent with taxable. After the murder of Serliana took the throne the son of Alim Khan — Murad. For the sake of preserving power, he is forced to recognize himself as a vassal of the Bukhara Emir. Then Musulmankul fixes it and enthrones the son of Serliana – Hadera by marrying him to his daughter.

Taking advantage of the Khan’s youth, the Muslim Actually took power into his own hands. In particular, he distributed most of the high posts to Kipchak representatives. Because of this, in the Kokand khanate, has increased discontent and Musulmankul was dismissed mingboshi.

Having decided to restore its influence, the Muslim Secretly tries to establish contact with the representative of the command of the Russian troops V. V. Velyaminov-Zernov. On hearing this, Kokand to know to get rid of the Kipchaks, luring to their side Gudergan. In 1853 in Kokand began the massacre of Kipchaks, and Moslem Was captured and then executed.

But the internal struggle for the throne did not stop there. Officials, once involved in Huerfano in the elimination of Musulmankul themselves conspired against him. These actions were unsuccessful. From 1852 to 1865 on the throne was raised a few rulers. In 1865 the Kokand, Kipchak and Kirghiz declared Khodonovich Khan, who was in power for only 14 days and fled to Kashgar, taking all the jewels of the Treasury. The result Gudergan freely took the throne in Kokand.

Russia, taking advantage of internal political instability, began active hostilities against the khanate. As a result, from 1853 to 1865, Russian troops occupied the city of the Kokand khanate — Almasjid, Takmak, Pishpek (now Bishkek), Aulieata, Turkestan, Chimkent, and Tashkent, as well as the surrounding areas. On July 14, 1867, Emperor Alexander II established the Turkestan Governor-General, which included the lands captured in Central Asia.

As a result of the Russian military expansion, the ownership of the Kokand khanate decreased significantly, which caused a decrease in tax revenues to the state Treasury. For its replenishment Khan increased the tax burden. This decision caused discontent among the population, and in 1871, in a Plow, a riot broke out, which turned into a prolonged armed uprising, and entered history as the «Uprising of Tashkent». The rebellion was suppressed by Russian troops, and Pulatkhon captured and executed in March 1876 Margilan. In the same year, by the decision of the tsarist authorities, the Kokand khanate was officially liquidated and the Fergana region of the Turkestan Governor-General was formed instead.

THE CONQUEST OF CENTRAL ASIA BY RUSSIA

Since the 20s of the 19th century, English goods began to create competition for Russian goods in Central Asia. Britain has openly claimed to be present in Afghanistan, Iran, and Central Asia. To strengthen its position in Asian markets, Russia creates favorable customs conditions for the export of Russian goods here.

Under Nicholas I, the diplomatic and then military presence of tsarist Russia in the region is activated. In 1834, on the way to the Uzbek khanates was built new Alexander fortification (Mangyshlak). In late 1839-early 1840, Governor-General of Orenburg count Perovsky made an unsuccessful winter military campaign against Khiva. In 1847 General Orucev occupied the North-Eastern coast of the Aral sea and founded the Raim Fort (the city of Kazalinsk). Was created the Aral flotilla, consisting of ships, «Nicholas» and «Constantine.» In 1850-1855. Russian troops captured Kokand fortification Kamyshkurgan, Chimkurgan, Koshkurgan, the fortress AK-mosque (Kyzyl-Orda), occupied the valley of the ili river, where the strengthening of the Faithful.

During the reign of Alexander II, the conquest of Central Asia came to the fore of the Imperial foreign policy of Russia. The reason for the advance to the South was the constant raids of military units of the Kokand khanate on Russian settlements in southern Kazakhstan, the lower reaches of the Syr Darya and on the Aral sea coast. In 1865, major General M. G. Chernyaev captured Tashkent and forced the elders of the city to sign a truce agreement. Emperor Alexander II instructed the Orenburg Governor to accept residents of Tashkent into Russian citizenship in case of their request. Some influential persons, traders from Tashkent, signed such an appeal. In 1866 Russian troops captured the fortress of Khujand, and Dzhizak. The fortress was built in Chinaz. Russian citizenship crossed the Khujand and Sacerfice edge.

In July 1867, the Imperial decree established the Turkestan military district headed by the Governor-General. In 1868, the troops of the Turkestan military district under the command of adjutant General von Kaufman began military operations against the Bukhara khanate. In may, Russian troops approached Samarkand and entered the city without a fight. In June, the Emir of Bukhara signed a truce agreement. Zarafshan district was formed. The detachment of General Abramov captures Karshi and returns it to the Emir of Bukhara. In 1870, as a result of the military operation of major General Abramov, Shahrisabz and Kitab were conquered. Shahrisabzskaya and passed Kitab feud of the Bukhara Emir. In 1873, as a result of a major military operation, an attack on the Khiva khanate was organized by Turkestan, Mangyshlak and Orenburg. In the hostilities took part mouth 49, 32 hundreds, of 34 guns, 2 of the ship. In may of taken fortress Khazarasp, Khiva and then, later, captured the fortress of Kungrat, Hodjeili, Mangit and bekstvo Gurlen. In August, an armistice agreement was signed with the Khan of Khiva. Over the khanate of Khiva was established a protectorate of Russia, the power was kept by Muhammad Rahim-Bahadur Khan (Feruz). In autumn 1873, a new political agreement was signed with the khanate of Bukhara.

In 1875-1876, as a result of military actions in the Fergana valley, an uprising against Khudoyar Khan and the Russian authorities was suppressed. Kokand khanate is liquidated, in its territory the Ferghana region as a part of Russia is formed. In 1881, the Akhal-Teke oasis was stormed and Ashgabat was captured. The Convention on the distinction between Russia and Persia was signed. In 1884 he was subordinated to Merv. In 1885 the Russian citizenship is passed Turkmen Penzenskogo oasis and the Murgab river. Kushka became the southernmost point of the Russian border.

Thus, by the 80s of the 19th century, the Russian borders in Central Asia were finally formed. In 1895, the Russian and British governments signed an agreement on the delimitation of zones of influence with the definition of the dividing line in the Pamir mountains.

UZBEKISTAN IN THE 20TH — 40TH YEARS OF THE XX CENTURY

In 1924 Uzbekistan became a part of the Soviet Union as one of the republics. In March 1927 the first Constitution of Uzbekistan was adopted. In those years a crucial role in the development of the national economy and culture of the Central Asian republics played an inter-government bodies: the Central Asian economic Council (1923), Sredsvto, Sideslopes etc. In a relatively short time in the Republic were eliminated severe consequences of the civil war. The industry grew rapidly. The greatest changes have taken place in the engineering, Metalworking and energy sectors.

In the period from 1928 to 1942, 515 industrial enterprises and power plants were put into operation, including Chirchik electrochemical plant, Tashselmash, Kuvasai cement and lime plant, Tashtekstilkombinat, etc. In 1925-1929, land and water reform was carried out. Agriculture and irrigation were completely reconstructed, new canals and reservoirs were built. Literacy of the population of Uzbekistan by 1941 was 95%. Turkestan state University (1920) became the largest center of higher education. By the end of the 20s, there were dozens of research institutions in Uzbekistan, employing more than 1,000 researchers. Since 1930 Tashkent became the capital. In February 1937 a new Constitution of the UzSSR was adopted. In accordance with the new Constitution, elections to the Republican authorities were held, headed by Yu. Akhunbabayev and Fayzulla Khodjaev. The whole life of the Republic and of the Soviet Union, proceeded under the sign of the growing cult of Stalin’s personality and to the strengthening of authoritarian methods of leadership. Mass repressions in Uzbekistan began with the arrest of prominent party and state figures. The bodies of political administration (OGPU) fabricated case against F. Khodjaev, A. Ikramov, D. Manjari etc. In August-September of 1937 he was arrested hundreds of people, including the leaders of the Communist party of Uzbekistan sh Baltabayev, I. Hudaykulov, A. Zaher, M. shermuhamedov, M. Usmanov and others By the spring of 1938, was repressed more than 60% of the secretaries of regional committees, city committees, district committees of the party.

UZBEKISTAN IN THE YEARS OF WAR (1941-1945.)

June 22, 1941 Germany, violating the Treaty of non-aggression, suddenly attacked the USSR. On June 23, Tashkent hosted a rally of thousands of people, at which the people of Tashkent expressed their readiness to do everything in their power to win in the rear and at the front. In the first months of the war in Uzbekistan, 32 thousand applications were filed for sending to the front. By November 1941, 14 national brigades had been formed in the Republic: 9 separate rifle brigades and 5 cavalry brigades.

In 1941-1943, Uzbekistan received and accommodated 1 million refugees evacuated in connection with military operations from Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Of them — 200 thousand children. The military situation required urgent measures to strengthen the rear. Uzbekistan had adopted more than one hundred industrial enterprises: the Leningrad factory of textile machinery, Rostselmash, «Krasny Aksay,» Stalingrad chemical plant, Moscow plant «Lift», «Electrotank» and many others. By the end of 1941 more than 50 evacuated enterprises were put into operation. In the middle of 1942. all enterprises relocated to Uzbekistan worked at full capacity, supplying military equipment, ammunition and equipment to the front. From the very beginning of the war they were rebuilt to produce defense products and enterprises of the Republican industry. Among them — Tashselmash, locomotive, Chirchik electrochemical combine, etc. during the war of 1941-1945 in Uzbekistan enacted 280 industrial enterprises. In 1943, the share of industry in the national economy increased to 75%. In the autumn of 1942, the construction of a metallurgical plant in Bekabad began. Began the creation of non-ferrous metallurgy on the basis of explored reserves of tungsten, molybdenum, copper, etc. Was put into operation Almalyk copper Deposit.

From 1940 to 1943, due to the construction of new power plants, electricity production increased 3.5 times. From 1941 to 1945 280 new enterprises representing all branches of industry were built. Uzbekistan has become one of the main arsenals of the country. More than 2 thousand planes, more than 1,7 thousand aircraft engines, the same number of mortars, 22 million mines, 560 thousand shells, about a million grenades, 330 thousand parachutes, 5 armored trains, more than 100 thousand km of various wires were sent to the front. 22 research institutes, 16 universities, 2 libraries were relocated to Uzbekistan. November 4, 1943 was the Grand opening of the Academy of Sciences. The first President was elected T. N. Kary-Niyazov. By the end of 1944, the Academy of Sciences included 22 scientific institutions. In 1943, 41 higher educational institutions, including 12 evacuees, 52 secondary special educational institutions worked in the Republic. During the war they trained more than 20 thousand specialists. More than a million Uzbeks fought on the war fronts. Dozens of national military formations were created. Many of them were awarded orders and received the title of guards. Warriors-the people of Uzbekistan took part in the defense of the Brest fortress (D. Abdullaev, T. Aliev, Isaev, Felix, Linkov F., W. Ataev, etc.), Kiev, Smolensk, Odessa, Sevastopol and other cities.

UZBEKISTAN IN 1945-1991 YEARS.

In the post-war period in Uzbekistan the process of development of the diversified industry with branched transport and power systems continued. The city turned into a scientific and cultural centers. In 1947 the State academic Bolshoi theatre of Uzbekistan was opened, in 1964 the Opera and ballet theatre was opened in Samarkand. Agriculture is transferred to intensive methods and mechanized. By 1984, 4175 thousand hectares of cultivated areas, of which 2056 thousand hectares under cotton, were developed. The leadership of the Republic after the war in different years was carried out by U. Yusupov, A. Niyazov, N. Mukhitdinov, Sh.

In the 80-ies of the USSR entered a period of political and ideological crisis. Centrifugal tendencies were stronger. The peoples living on the territory of the USSR reached such a level of economic development and development of their national consciousness that political, economic and state dependence on the Union became the factors that hindered the further development of each Republic. Further progress required new conditions.

UZBEKISTAN GAINED INDEPENDENCE

The acquisition of state independence of Uzbekistan on August 31, 1991 took place in difficult political and socio-economic conditions. Because for 130 years the colonial regime did not give an opportunity for the independent development of the Republic.

The Declaration of independence set the people and the leadership of the country the task of carrying out fundamental reforms. As a result of the domestic and foreign policy pursued by the government headed by I. Karimov, Uzbekistan was recognized by the world community as an independent state. Within a short time Uzbekistan has defined its own model of development.

The «Uzbek model» of development developed and implemented by President I. Karimov has created the ground for the socio-economic development of the country. Grain and oil independence was ensured in a short time. Uzbekistan from agrarian and underdeveloped country turned into fast developing, exporting modern machinery and technology to the country. The correctness of the chosen path of development of Uzbekistan was confirmed by the world financial and economic crisis that began in 2008. «The Uzbek model» successfully passed the test of the crisis, deservedly received high positive assessments of international financial organizations and experts.

Historical experience shows that no state can develop in isolation from the world community. As a result of the balanced foreign policy, Uzbekistan was recognized by more than 180 countries, and diplomatic relations were established with 130 countries. The Republic of Uzbekistan is a member of such authoritative international organizations as the UN, CIS, SCO, etc.

Today Uzbekistan carries out bilateral and mutually beneficial cooperation in the economic, political and cultural spheres with the countries of North and South America, Europe, the Middle East and Asia.